How much water is on earth?

Water is the most important substance on the earth required by all the living organisms whether human beings, plants or animals. We cannot imagine life on earth without water.

72% of the earth surface is occupied by the water bodies. It approximately 336,000,000,000,000,000,000 gallons which are equal to 326 million trillion gallons of water according to the geological survey of U.S. it is found in solid, liquid and gaseous state. The water from the ocean evaporates and form clouds then it rains down to earth and again flows back to the ocean, seas and rivers. So it always remains in a cycle on the earth.

Oceans are the largest water bodies on the planet to store water. They are many thousands feet deep. Almost all the water on the earth i.e. 98% of it is in the oceans but this water is salty so cannot be used for drinking purposes. Only 2% of the total water present on the earth is fresh out of which 1.6 is trapped in the glaciers and ice caps. Only .36 percent is available in the wells which make thousands of million gallons but it is very small percentage when compared to the total amount of water on the earth. Brazil, Canada, Indonesia, china, Columbia and Russia are the six countries which have 50 percent of the total fresh water. Nearly one-third of the people on the earth live in the areas which do not have enough fresh water reserves. 

Remaining water is found in the form of vapors and clouds in the atmosphere or trapped in the animal and plant bodies.

If all the water of the earth is to be stored in one place then it will require a lake which is as large as United States and it must have more than 90 miles of the depth.

How deep is the Pacific Ocean?

Pacific Ocean is the largest of all the water bodies on the earth. It has got its name from a Latin word Mare Pacificum which means peaceful sea given by Ferdinand Magellan a Portuguese explorer.

Pacific Ocean is 12999 meters deep. The deepest point in the Pacific Ocean is in the Mariana Trench. It is in western part of ocean and near the fourteen Mariana Islands. It is in the shape of semi-circle. It has the length of two thousand five hundred and fifty meters from north east to southwest and width of nearly seventy kilometers.

We know that our earth interiors are made up of lava. Sometimes it comes up to the mantle and reaches to crust through cracks which cause the piece of crust to come closer or to widen when both the oceanic crust which is heavy and continental crust that is light pushed against each other. The continental gets pushed on the top whereas the oceanic is pushed to the bottom. Finally oceanic crust makes trench. So this trench is formed by the subduction process.

Pacific Ocean is very deep so the tsunami waves can move with the speed of 750 kilometers per hour. This ocean starts from arctic in north and ends to Antarctic in south divided by the equator and known as North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean.

What causes tornadoes?

Tornadoes are very frequent in United States. They occur mostly during the spring and summer seasons. Nearly 800 tornadoes occur in different parts of U.S per year. Tornadoes also occur in many other parts of the world, but they are most frequent in U.S.

Tornado is a violently rotating air that extends from the thunderstorm to the ground. They can cause a lot of damage to lives and property. The most powerful tornadoes move with the speed of 250mph (miles per hour) or even more. These destructive forces come in different shapes and size but the most common shape of a tornado is much like a funnel i.e. narrow from the bottom and wide from above.


Tornadoes form in an unusually violent thunderstorm. When it gets the favorable conditions i.e. the air gets unusually warm and humid in lower atmosphere, cooler and dry in upper atmosphere, quick change in speed and direction of the air and fall in temperature as the height increases, cause tornadoes.

Tornadoes form in an unusually violent thunderstorm. When it gets the favorable conditions i.e. the air gets unusually warm and humid in lower atmosphere, cooler and dry in upper atmosphere, quick change in speed and direction of the air and fall in temperature as the height increases, cause tornadoes.

Why is San Francisco so Foggy?

Many of us have heard about foggy London town but people who live in San Francisco know that this great city on the west coast of the United States can also’ be quite foggy and cool, especially in the summer. It’s tempting to think of San Francisco as a unique location and it may just be that.

It seems that the unusual atmospheric conditions are the result of a collision of large air masses, one hot and the other much cooler. Moisture in the masses will condense and produce clouds, as is usually the case when these types of air masses meet. But it seems that the hills and valleys of San Francisco also play a part in the foggy conditions.
Condense water vapor that might otherwise hang around at high altitudes dips to ground level, creating foggy conditions in The City. Accompanying this foggy atmosphere are temperate conditions, with few cold days and few hot days. If you haven’t experienced San Francisco weather, expect crisp days, cool days and at the best of times, clear air. But be prepared for fog!

Water, Water!

If that isn’t enough to satisfy your curiosity about fog and San Francisco, consider this: The city is surrounded by water, with the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay supplying plenty of moisture. Sometimes the surrounding areas get very warm. This combines with the cool, moist air over the bay and ocean. When the winds are just right, the moist air moves into San Francisco as fog, which is just a ground-level cloud.

Naturally, if you move inland, into the main part of the state of California, you find less fog because the air is less moist. In some areas, there are no foggy days to speak of. But the warmth of these areas contributes to more summer time fog in San Francisco.

In some parts of San Francisco you may spend an entire day in foggy conditions. This is especially true near the marina and the ocean beaches. Fog might clear toward evening, depending on the amount and direction of wind. So, if you are going to central California and plan to make The City part of your holiday trip, be prepared for something other than sunshine and heat.

Though we often hear about sunny California, this won’t necessarily be the conditions you’ll find in the Bay area. You’ll have to stay inland or head south to experience the sun-and-fun. Oh, you might have a rare day for outdoor pleasure but the temperature may not be high enough for the swim suit.

All things considered, clearest weather you’ll find will come with cool temperatures inland. This produces less fog. Sunshine is more common in late September and in October. Contrary to popular belief, these may be the warmest months in the San Francisco area. You might plan to visit the Golden Gate and other attractions when the leaves are changing color and there is no fog to block the sun.

Why is Cincinnati Known as the Queen City?

First of all, it’s important to know that Cincinnati, Ohio was first named Losantiville (in the 1780s). The current name came from an organization formed by officers who served in the Revolutionary War – the Society of Cincinnati. The city on the Ohio River soon became a desirable destination and the population grew accordingly. One of the nicknames given to the city during this growth was “Queen City.” This may have been a shortened form of another nickname “Queen of the West,” Since the Northwest Territories were “the west” in the early years of the United States.

According to written and oral history of the area, residents have always thought of this city as glorious and even regal. Whether this was because of its bustling economy, its population growth or its location on the banks of the Ohio is still undecided. Writers of the early 1800s called it the Queen of the West and Queen City. No less a literary mind than Longfellow wrote of the city in his poetry, specifically using “Queen of the West” in one poem.

Other names were assigned to Cincinnati, some less than desirable than others. References were made to the city as the center of the pork industry. But emphasis on music, fine art and higher education soon solidified the name Queen City. Some even made comparisons to Paris. As the name became more and more commonly used, organizations, clubs and businesses took up the “Queen City” idea. As advertising spread the word about the groups and the products, people across the country began to view Cincinnati as a “queen” among metropolitan areas.

In the 21st century, Cincinnati is not the largest city in Ohio. The state capital, Columbus, has passed the Queen City in population. But dozens of retail stores, factories, private clubs and organizations continue to use “Queen City” in their names.

Cincinnati was founded in 1787 with the formation of the Northwest Territories, made “official” by the Northwest Ordinance. A group of travelers settled in the area about a year later, first calling the settlement Columbia. Eventually a site was chosen for a second settlement. The name Losantiville was chosen, though that was changed in 1790.

According to a history of the city itself, a man named Cooke wrote that the city was “justly styled the fair Queen of the West.” He cited “order, enterprise, public spirit, and liberality” as traits that caused the world to admire Cincinnati. Visitors of the 20th century have had similar reactions on their first and subsequent visits to the city. Some have even expressed admiration for Cincinnati as an equal to San Francisco and other favorite United States metropolitan areas.

Cincinnati does continue to offer some of the best in the arts, music, professional sports and education. There have been some times of trouble and short periods when parts of the community probably didn’t deserve the title “Queen City.” But for the most part, Cincinnati has maintained its nickname and its reputation for more than two centuries.

How bluetooth works?

Any electronic device like telephone, computer and entertainment system is made up of many different parts. If we want to create communication among these devices than we have many options like wires, radio signals, light beam, many connectors, protocols etc. and many more are coming up. These days one popular and interesting way of connecting devices is Bluetooth. It can connect the devices like digital cameras, camcorders, laptops, cell phones, printers, scanner, keyboards etc.

 Bluetooth is an automatic mini network that does not require wires and it can connect eight devices in a network at a time. It can work both point-to point and point to multiple point system. It means that if one device is communicating with the other that is point to point and if one device is communicating with more than one device that is called multiple point systems. It is used mainly for personal networking in small area therefore it can create communication between the range of 30ft. Bluetooth uses the method of spread-spectrum frequency hopping which makes a device to use 79 frequencies that keep on changing within the fixed range and Bluetooth changes 1600 frequencies per second. A packet of information is sent on a particular frequency and for the next packet both the sender and the receiver transceivers will jump over to another frequency within the limited band. So every Bluetooth transmitter uses the method of spread spectrum and it becomes very rare for the two or more transmitter to be on the same frequency at the same time. So there are very rare chances of interference and distraction. If still someone wants to distract or disturb your communication then two things are required one is that he must have the special equipments and other one is that he should be present within the range.

Small transceivers are placed in the electronic devices which can send data at the speed of 721 kilobytes per second and also voice channels at the low power radio frequency of 2.45 gigahertz available worldwide for personal communications. Some security and wireless devices also use this frequency but the frequency hoping technique allows no disturbance or interference in the working of bluetooth and hence makes it a secure way of wireless communication.

One option to use Bluetooth is to build it modules within the devices or the other way is to use it as an adapter for e.g.:- modules can be built in the computers or they are connected to it through USB port.

Bluetooth does not require line of sight between two points that are to be connected like in the case of infrared signals. Bluetooth works on the modifications of LAN techniques used these days. 

Bluetooth using devices are mostly battery powered and Bluetooth consumes very less power of the battery. Its range is five to ten meters which does not require much power for communication. It is not expensive networking therefore it is widely used by many devices all over the world.

How a cell phone works?

Today almost everyone is using cell phones but do we know how it works?

Cell phone is basically the combination of two technologies or inventions. One is the telephone and other is the radio. Telephone was the invention of Graham Bell in 1876 and radio by Nikolai Tesla in 1880’s which made a way for the wireless communication. Cell phones are much like a radio which receives the signals from towers.

 Before the invention of cell phones people who want to have the wireless communication uses a radio device in their cars with an antenna on the top of car that receives the analog signals.

The working of cell phones are based on the technique of “frequency reuse” through the “cells”. A particular city is divided into small cells and the two individuals communicate through these cells. Frequency reuse is a technique in which one cell works on the previous cell frequency. These different cells have transistors which are required for the transmission of information from one cell to another. So transistors controls the different cells of an area and these transistors are further controlled by the towers.

In the whole process the service provider companies set stations and towers that cover a particular area. This station or cell is connected to other cell and forms a network for the transmission of information. All these small cells or station is controlled by the main network where the information or call is sent to another area or service provider. For e.g.:- when we call a person the number is sent to these station and then signal goes to the nearest cell of the receiver then the cell of the receiver send back the information to the nearest cell of the caller that the particular person has received the call. This seems to be a complex process but it does not take much time.

This information goes through electromagnetic waves which are received by antennas of the tower at the base station. These signals can be sent even through obstacles like wall. It does not require the sight of station for communication. 


Cell phone of 2nd generation uses the network technologies that are:-

FDMA (frequency division multiple access)
It is used for analog transmission and is not taken as capable of digital transmission. FDMA puts each call on different frequency like every station of radio send signals using different frequencies within the particular bandwidth.

TDMA (time division multiple access)
It divides the frequency in time slots. It has narrow bandwidth of 30 kilohertz and 6.7 milliseconds in length are divided according to the time in three time slots.

GSM
It works with SIM card but some companies lock the phone so that it can use only their services. It works within the frequency 900 megahertz and 1800 megahertz in Asian and European countries, 850 to 1900 megahertz in U.S.

Who invented iPod?

iPod was invented by a team of designers at Apple. The original idea of iPod came from a 23 year old Englishman, Kane Kramer, in the year 1979. He held a patent for the same till he was unable to renew his patent and it expired. Kane called his prototype the IXI; it did not have the ability to hold music for more than a few minutes.

The Invention

Tony Fadell, then an independent contractor, further nurtured the idea of iPod. He met with Apple, where Steve Jobs took him under his wing. Then a separate team was set up to create the finished product that we see today. This team included Jon Rubinstein, Michael Dhuey, Tony Fadell and Jonathan Ive. They were given a year’s time to come up with the finished product, which they did successfully.

The Name

The name iPod was suggested by a freelance writer Vinnie Chieco. Apple researched the name and found it to be listed and trademarked by Joseph N. Grasso. In the year 2005, Grasso assigned the trademark to Computer, Inc. 

When was the first car made?

After the invention of wheel man started inventing different types of vehicles that could run on roads. It is said that in 1678 father Ferdinand Verbiest presented a steam powered vehicle to the emperor of China. But no proofs are available for this so people took it as it was a model.
The first self propelled car was made in 1769 which was designed by Nicolas Cugnot and constructed by M Brezin. It can run at the maximum speed of 6 kilometers in an hour. Another engine driven by steam was invented by Nicolas ran faster than the earlier and it struck the wall which was the worlds first accident.

After these steam engine first internal combustion engine was made by Francois Isaac in year 1807. These engines had to wait till the fuel was available for the combustion. The internal combustion engine used a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen for energy generation. After this many more designs with combustion engine came into existence in early 19s but it gets negligible commercial success. Jean Joseph in 1860 designed an engine which was two stroke gas driven and in 1862 another gas driven engine was made by him whose speed was 3 kilometers per hour. These cars became popular and up to 1865. In the year 1868 Siegfried Marcus made a car having 3/4 horse power at 500 rpm. He showed that car in the exhibition of Vienna in 1873. 

In 1885 the first car came over the roads. Before this many successful attempts were made but they were steam-powered vehicles.

In 1885 four-stroke engine came into existence. Gottileb Daimlers created his own engines which are used in horseless vehicles or four wheeled vehicles and cars both. These were mostly like todays car with these cars came the era of speed. Unknown of Karl Benz who invented tri-cycle lived only 60 miles away from Daimler and never knew or met each other and it became the first true car. Many experiments were carried on after this. Henry Ford was also working on this and in 1896 made his Quadricycle which was the first car this car uses two cylinders gasoline engines and was automobile powered. He further established his company and his car became very famous. 

Early steam powered vehicles were heavy and can run only on smooth surfaces which needed rail like surfaces. So many experiments were made in 1830s in England to move a car that did not require rails.

 The Rolls Royce car in 1906 with six cylinders was completed in 1925. it was the best piece of technology and engineering available at that time and these cars still run silently and smoothly even today.

Why was the Eiffel Tower built?

The Eiffel tower was built in Paris for the world exhibition which was an international fair to show the beautiful, unique things and advance technology of France. Its construction was started in January 26, 1887 and was completed on 31st march 1889 which took two years, two months and five days. Eiffel tower was the designing of Gustave Eiffel who also designed the internal body of Liberty Statue. That is why it is called as Eiffel tower because Gustave Eiffel designed it. Tower has hundred stories with height of 324 meters. At that time more than one million dollars were spent on it and seven thousand tons of steel was used.


Eiffel tower was mainly built for the international exhibition but there were some other reasons too. It was built because that date was the celebration of hundred years of French revolution. People and higher officials of France wanted to celebrate this day by making France more beautiful. It became one of the most beautiful buildings of not only France but also the world. It was also taken as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. 

Another reason for which the tower was built was the advancement in the field of science. Because the Eiffel tower was tall it could be used for the experiments of temperature, pressure and radio telegraphy.

After twenty years when with the expiry of its lease many people wanted to destroy the tower but some politicians and scientist opposed the thought and kept it for the radio transmission purposes. Still it is used for the same purpose. Eiffel tower might not be there if it was not used for the radio transmission.

The last reason for the Eiffel tower to be built was to create history that will also glorify the exhibition. In those times it was the tallest building all over the planet and its design was very helpful in creating and constructing other buildings in France.

Actually it was purposed that tower is to be constructed in Barcelona for the world exhibition to be held at 1888. But the officials of that city did not take any interest in it and thought it was an expensive project. After that Paris agreed for the construction of tower and it became the entrance mark for the exposition. 

Today also Eiffel tower is of great importance for the France. We can see the area of 42 miles from the top of tower. It is open for the visitors and approximately two hundred million people had visited the Eiffel tower till now.

Why was the Berlin wall built?

After the second world war Germany was fragmented into two parts i.e. east Germany under the communist rule of soviet union and the west Germany which was democratic country supported by U.S.A. Berlin lies in the centre of east Germany so it was divided for the occupation by Russia, U.S.A. and England. The relation between West Germany which was democratic and East Germany which was communist was getting bitter. So a wall was built which separated east and West Germany. This wall prevented the people from the East Germany to enter west Germany and enjoy freedom. East Germany had already lost many workers who went to other part. The higher officials of East Germany thought that best way to prevent the flow of manpower to west was to build the wall. The wall was constructed on 13th august 1961. It was one hundred and seven kilometers long and four meters in height, built with concrete. On the east part of the wall a trench was made so that no vehicle may hit the wall and to restrict the people from jumping the wall. If somebody tries to cross the wall then he was shot without asking any question.

Before the construction of wall nearly 2.6 million people came to West Germany because that was the place where people can live with freedom but in the east there was communist rule and the public had to suffer.
The wall separated these two countries for 28 years. Finally on 9th November 1989 East Germany decided to open the borders between east and West Germany. That day was celebrated by the people of both the sides. They greeted each other with flowers and danced on the wall.

How does the heart work?

Heart is one of the most important organs of our body. It acts as a pump for supplying oxygenated blood and nutrients to all parts of the body. It is cone-shaped and approximately similar to the size of human fist. Heart is located on the left of breastbone.


It has three layers called endocardium which is the innermost lining, myocardium, the middle one and pericardium, the outer one. Heart consists of four chambers two are on the left and two are on the right side of heart. The top chambers are known as right and left atrium. Both at the bottom are known as right and left ventricles. Septum separates left and right side of heart. These parts play important role in the proper functioning of heart. The main function of heart is to supply oxygenated blood to different parts of body.

Firstly the impure blood or oxygen lacking blood enters into the right atrium through the veins called inferior and superior vena cava. After that it goes to tricuspid valve and then to right ventricle. This ventricle contracts and pushes the blood to pulmonary valve which carries the impure blood to lungs where the oxygen again enters the blood and carbon dioxide is given out.

Now pulmonary vein carries the oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart. First it goes to the left atrium and then to left ventricle. When it contracts it pushes the blood to aorta through aortic valve. Aorta is a vessel that distributes the blood to the different organs and tissues.

Whenever the right or left ventricle is filled with blood both mitral and tricuspid valve closes so that the blood cannot flow back into the atrium during the contraction of ventricle. This process goes on till the person is alive.

How heart beat is caused?

The lining of all four chambers of heart are made up of special muscle because they have to contract and relax in the proper way and order so that the blood can be pumped with each single beat of heart. 

Sino-atrial node is the natural pacemaker of heart present in the right atrium of heart which acts in regular intervals by giving an electrical impulse. It sends these impulses at the rate of 60 to 80 per minute while resting and more if you are exercising or doing hard physical work. The rate depends upon the fastness of work.

These impulses make both the atrium to contract which further allows the blood to move in the ventricles. Now the impulse is sent to atrio-ventricular node which is in the lower part of right atria. Here the impulse is halted which causes a slight delay. This AV node takes the impulse to ventricles and the blood is pumped out of the ventricles and goes to the body or lungs. The whole process is repeated with each and every impulse. This electrical impulse of the heart is the source that causes heartbeat. 

Nearly 5 quarts of blood is pumped per minute and every single impulse causes the blood to circulate in the body and lungs.
Weight of female heart is 9 oz (255g) and that of a male is 10.5 oz (300g). Heart of normal person beats 72 times per minute. Variation in number of beats also happens depending on age, physical workout, health, fitness etc.

There can be some serious problems in the parts of heart which requires proper treatment. Severe damage in the heart can cause heart attack which may even lead to death. 

How the brain works?

Every living organism on earth has brain whether it is a bird, reptile, fishes, mammal etc. human brain is different from all the above and controls or instructs all the functions of our body. Like inhaling, exhaling, blood pressure, heart rate, metabolism etc. it collects the information from surrounding environment using five senses in the body and then further interpret it and respond accordingly. Brain is responsible for our dreams, reasoning, emotions, experiences, walk, and talk, to stand, to sit etc. It is of nearly three pounds in weight.

The working of brain is something very complex. It is the millions of small neutrons working with synchronization. Lets take an example of telephone network all over the world. There are huge numbers of wires and signals each day but the working of single human brain is still more complex. If there is any injury or problem in the brain then it is equal to the problem if all the wires and network is disconnected in a city and that may take a year or more. Our brain contains nearly hundred billion cells that are known as neurons. A neuron is either resting or sending some signals through axon that acts as wire and ends on a small part that gives out chemical. The chemical then moves to the other neurons and conveys the message. Each of the neuron has power to give out chemicals like norepinephrine, dopamine etc and transmit them to other neurons. Its working is same as that of gates and wires in computers. With the help of neurons the signal can be sent to any part of the body.

It is made up of three basic parts:-

CELL BODY: – it is the main part that contains everything a cell must have i.e. nucleus, ribosome etc. if this part of cell is damaged then neuron is destroyed.

AXON: – it is a projection that has to take all the signals to the other parts of neuron.

DENDRITES: – these are small projection that connects one cell with the other and helps in the transmission of message.

Neurons are of many types according to its functions: -

SENSORY NEURONS: – these carry the signals from the parts of body to the central nervous system.

MOTOR NEURONS: – carries the messages from central nervous system to the different parts of body.

RECEPTORS: – they take the outside information and change them to electrochemical impulses.

INTER NEURONS: – they join the neurons of spinal cord and brain.

RECEIVING INFORMATION AND TRANSMISSION OF MESSAGES TO THE BODY

Almost all the messages from the body reach the brain through spinal cord which lies on the bottom of brain. If the spinal cord is not there then you will not be able to do any movement of feel any sensation. The information such as vision and hearing go directly to the brain. This is the reason that why during paralyses people cant move but can se and hear properly.
Messages from the body is received by spinal cord and then go to mid brain from where it spreads to brain surface.  

Our brain is divided into two parts i.e. left and right. Right part deals with what eyes see. It recognizes like it know this is a pen,notebook. Etc. So it puts the information together while the left part analyses the information that is in the right and gives it language for e.g.: – right recognizes that this is a pen and left analyses that is this is robins pen. 




MOVEMENT

The part of brain that is responsible for the movement is narrow strip which starts from top of the head to the ear and is known as motor strip. If there is some problem in this part of brain then problems occur in controlling body movements. If this area of left part doesnt work then right part of brain will not work properly and if there is a stroke on this area on right part then left part doesnt work properly. 


HEARING

Right handed person has left temporal lobe dominant and vice-versa. Right handed people have the ability in left temporal lobe to understand and express that in words while in left handed it is in right. One part of this lobe recognizes the basic, common sounds while the other deals with complex sounds. For e.g. if we charge a small piece of iron and put it on one part of the temporal lobe then we will only hear a sound or tone. If we put it on complex area then we can recognize a word. If it is on more complex area then we can match the sound with some of the known voices.
Right temporal lobes work is to deal with musical sounds and information and recognize noise but it also sometimes works for hearing purposes. If this part gets some problem then we cannot praise any music or sing.
The vision and hearing area of brain have boundaries. Where they meet that is the area that deals with reading. Visual letters are taken in and are converted to sound. Damage to this area can cause dyslexia in which they cannot read properly or cannot recognize the written words. 


SKIN SENSATION

If we feel some touch or sensation on left hand then the right brain has to deal with it and the information reaches to the area next to that area which has to deal with movement i.e. tactile area. They are located close to each other because sensations and movements are related. Problem in this particular part of brain does not allow the person to feel touch sensations and make movement.


Some parts of brain and their working: -

FRONTAL LOBE

It has very important functions to play and it lies in the front part. That is why it is called as frontal lobe. One of its functions is planning. Any damage in this part can cause planning problems in the work that has various steps for e.g.: – planning a party, fixing a vehicle etc. other functions of frontal lobe is organization that means we decide which thing has to be done first, second and so on but injury can distract our power of organization.
It controls our emotions deep on the mid brain like aggression, hunger etc. The frontal lobe tells you to grab food when you are hungry. So it deals with these emotions and instructs the body parts accordingly.

SPINAL CORD

Spinal cord provides the path for most of the signals from body to brain and vice versa it is responsible for the reflex actions in our body. In such a situation brain is not involved, spinal cord itself works. It can be taken as different entity, not a part of brain or the downward extension of brain.  

CEREBRUM

It is the largest part of the brain and has deep folds and wrinkles due to which its capacity for processing information is speeded up. It is divided in two parts, the messages from left is sent to right side and from right are sent to left.

MEDULLA

It controls over the breathing and blood pressure of body. It also relays signals of body that has come from the five sense organs directly to the brain.

MID BRAIN

Its work is to connect all the sections of the brain that participates in motor functions, movements of eye and auditory functions.

THALAMUS

Its working is to send the outside sensory signals to the appropriate area of cortex. It acts as the gatekeeper for all the messages. It controls temperature of the body, eating, sexual behavior, sleeping.

HYPOTHALAMUS

It is responsible for the secretion of hormones of pituitary gland. It controls reproduction, growth, drinking, eating, and lactation in mothers. Hypothalamus deals with behavioral aspects too like we come to know about the time through daily light and dark circles.

LAYERS

Brain have three layers known as meninges present below the skull. The outer one is known as dura, mid one is arachnoid, inner one is pia. The outer one is tough and protects the brain, the middle one is filled with fluid to provide a cushion for the brain and the inner one is a delicate layer.        

What causes cold feet?

Cold feet are a common problem that affects many people. It happens mostly when a person enters in an air conditioned room. Your fingers turn numb and icy when you hold a chilled vessel. Sometimes it is the temperature which is responsible for the coldness but sometimes it is not.

Stress, tension, emotional disturbance can also cause your feet to turn to icy. The condition when sensitive hands and feet gets cold due to stress and temperature is called raynaud’s syndrome in medical language. During the stressful condition and low temperature the small blood vessels in extremities narrows which allow a very small amount of blood to pass through it. Hence circulation of blood is affected on that part of body. Fingers and feet becomes waxy numb and cool. But when they get warm the blood comes back with full force you can see redness and tingle.

Secondary raynauds is more serious kind of problem which affects the women over 40 and men but it is not so common. In this case too the blood vessels get narrower but the reason for it is not stress or temperature. The factor behind it can be high blood pressure, smoking, diseases like arthritis, lupus etc. it gradually gets worse with each winter and this can further damage the tissues and can sore

EFFECTS OF COLD FEET

This can develop infection under the skin. It does not produce sensation in the body to soft and sharp touches on the feet. Studies have shown that it also disturbs your sleep. In severe cases tissues are completely destroyed which is called gangrene and it will require surgery.
Patients suffering from cold feet should always try to keep body warm by wearing socks and hat as most of the heat of body is lost through the scalp. Diabetic patients should keep check on their diet. So that the glucose level blood pressure remains normal.
Cold feet is also caused in some person because of dishonesty in their feelings.

How many bones are in the human body?

Bones are very important for our body which gives support and shape to our body. Imagine your body without bones it will be like a bag of flesh. Bones have the protective functions. They protect inner organs like brain is protected by the skull and lungs and heart are protected by rib cage. Bones also store minerals for the body. It is the collective work of muscles, joints and bones that we can move.
When a child takes birth his body contains 300 to 350 bones but as he grows some bones start fusing with each other and up to adult age the body has an average of nearly 208 bones. The smallest bone present in our body is stirrup which can be found in the ear and is less than one inch in length. Its function is to take the sound waves from the eardrum to inner ear. The largest bone in the human body is femur that starts from hip and reaches to the knee.
A bone present between voice box and mandible is hyoid bone; it is V-shaped and is only bone in the body which is not connected to any other bone.


Generally there are two methods of counting bones so number of bones can vary. Some count the structure of bones as a single bone with different parts while others take all the small parts as the different bones.

A human skull has twenty eight bones which include 8 for cranial, 6 ear bones and 14 bones for the face. Neck has one V-shaped hyoid bone, 26 bones for vertebrae. 24 for ribs. Three breast bones called sternum, four bones in the pectoral girdle. Six pairs of bone for the ears, 60 pairs of bones in the arms. Hands contain 26 bones having 7 in the wrist, nineteen in fingers. Some are the partial bones associated with joints and vary from 8 to 18. Some parts of the body has number of bones but when touched it feels as if it is one single bone.

 Mostly adult women and men have same number of bones but some people may have one extra rib pair i.e.13 pairs instead of 12.

Bones can be categorized into four types:-

Long bones
These are present in limbs

Short bones
These are the bones collectively give strength to human skeleton.

Flat bones
These bones give place to muscles to attach with each other and protect our body.

Irregular bones
These are the type of bones that cannot be categorized in three of the above types.

Why do people sleepwalk?

Experiments are still going on to know the exact reasons of sleepwalk but there are some of the possibilities which are known to us. Professionals say that it is a kind of disorder in which a person is between a state of sleeping and walking because there must be something that triggers the brain during sleep. They further say that it may be due to epilepsy, dissociative disorders or hysteria or may be their secret wishes.


Sleepwalking is more common among the children nearly in the age six to 12 as compare to the adults. As the children grow up they drop off this habit and only four percent of them continues with it. In children sleepwalk is may be due to anxiety, fatigue, immaturity of brain, less sleep or a child can inherit this from his parents. In adults it may be because of alcohol, drugs or disorder of brain.

Another reason for sleepwalk is REM (rapid eye movement) behavior disorder. During the phase of REM body is paralyzed by self released chemical. The people having sleepwalk cannot create this chemical in their body, hence exposed to this problem. In adults sleepwalk is mainly due to psychological causes. Some people say that sleepwalk is an act of dreaming but dreams occur during REM sleep when only our mind is active not the body but it is not very active during NREM sleep because during this time we change sides on bed. So it can be said that sleepwalk is not an act of dream.

It is difficult to wake a person in sleepwalk and if he wakes he appears as confused and for few minutes lost his memory of what had happened. A person in sleepwalk mostly have blank expression and appears awake and always acts in a clumsy manner.

Why do we have nails?

Fingernails and toenails on the human body are from since the evolution of the species and these were very useful for the early people. They use them for climbing purposes. It has the same functions as the claws in the animals. At that time no tool was available for the human beings except that are found in nature and the nails that served them as the scrapers, cutters and tweezers.

Today nails have become evolutionary remnants and are used for the small purposes like to scratch and itch or to protect the tips of our fingers and toes. Nails are broad and slightly curved in shape. They are made up of keratinized structure, same substance of which the horns are made. These are found in the vertebrate animals while in crocodiles it is in the form of thimble shaped structure, in hawks and owls they are found as talons and also in horses and cows as hooves for the protection of their feet. So the fingernails protect the tips but at the same time do not obstruct the sensitivity and movement of the fingers. If sometimes a nail is removed then you have to take care of the skin below the nail because it is very sensitive and can allow the bacteria and germs to enter the body and the nail is not there which acts as the protective layer.

So we can say that today nails are of not much importance as twenty thousand years back. But of course they increase the beauty of womans hand when painted with beautiful nail colors.

Why does hair turn gray?

Every hair on the head has two important parts. One is shaft which we see as a part growing out and the second one is root, which is present under our scalp and it always firmly holds the hair. A group of tissue surrounds the root of every hair which is known as the hair follicle. These contain pigment cells varying in numbers and it produces melanin, a chemical that is responsible for the color of our skin whether a person will look fair or dark. Same way it is responsible for the color of hair which totally depends on the quantity of melanin present in each hair follicle and hence determines the color, brown, red, blonde etc.


This pigment cells present in hair follicle starts dying with the age. The less melanin present in hair follicle the lighter is the color of hair like white, silver, and gray Because now the root does not have enough melanin to retain the dark color of hair.

Hair turns gray not in old age but also in young age it may be in 30’s and 40’s or it can be in 20’s too. In these cases hair turn gray due to genetic reasons which means that a child hair will start turning to gray nearly at the age when their parents or grandparents had experienced their first gray hair. It took nearly ten years for all the hair to turn gray from the time when we have seen the first gray hair.

Genetics is the most common reason for gray hair but other causes are also more or less responsible for e.g. poor health, intake of less nutritious things, anemia, lack vitamin B, thyroid disorders etc. smoking is also one cause for hair to turn gray because it reduces the oxygen present in the tissues of our body.


Person getting treatment for aids or cancer will also have to face with the problem of gray hair. Some people think that shock, tension, stress are also responsible but scientists do not approve this. It may also occur because of climatic conditions and pollution.

What causes hangovers?

Headache, fatigue, shakes; nausea, all the symptoms at the same time is a hangover. The main cause of the hangover is having alcoholic beverages. These beverages contain ethanol. Liver enzymes help the liver to break ethanol, but too much of alcohol does not allow the liver enzymes to properly process ethanol, which further does not allow the proper supply of glucose to the body tissues, especially to the brain. Lack of glucose means lack of energy in body and brain, this result in tiredness, moodiness, dehydration, headache, dry mouth, weakness, etc. A chemical named acetaldehyde present in alcohol causes the worst hangover. So do not drink more alcohol than your body can metabolize.


Some researchers say that the acetone and methanol found in some drinks are the main cause of the hangover instead of ethanol. 

Alcohol has the tendency to increase the rate of urination, which further allows our body to get rid of water and fluids and cause dehydration in the body. Too much of alcohol also lessens the vitamins, minerals and blood sugar that helps the body to stay healthy. This fluids, water and nutrients are required by your body for the processing of alcohol. More is the intake of alcohol more is the loss of body fluids, water and nutrients, and less is the removal of toxins from the body, these toxins in the body cause hangovers.

Drink plenty of water before you go for a sleep at night and the next morning to avoid dehydration, which is further responsible for the hangover. You can also have non- carbonated and non- caffeinated drinks like orange juice, tomato juice, etc. 

Having fruits and vegetables will help to replenish nutrients in the body. Food in your stomach will help to retain the nutrients in your body, which will allow the less absorption of alcohol and its fast processing. It will reduce the severity of the hangover. You can also have b-complex and vitamin c to shorten the duration of the hangover. Exercise will definitely help you to get rid of toxins fast.

Impurities present in the wine is the another cause of the hangover. Good quality wines are always light in color and have fewer impurities while low quality wines are dark in color and have more impurities.

Drink slowly; say one drink in an hour. This will allow the body to process more alcohol in parts and reduce the intensity of the hangover. Some people think that drinking more alcohol is a solution for the hangover, but it only postpones the hangover. The best way to avoid a hangover is to drink less alcohol or as much as your body can easily process.

How many muscles are in the human body?

Muscles form the muscular system which is the network of fibers and tissues and causes the movements of body. There is not an exact number for the muscles. It depends on the experts opinion, some are complex muscles in which a branch of muscle is also considered as separate muscle. There is also very slight difference in muscular structure from person to person. Like some people do not have palmaris longus muscle found in the wrist on the anterior aspect.
These all factors cause the variation in number of muscles but we can say that human body has six hundred and fifty six to eight hundred fifty muscles. The muscles can be divided into three categories:-

1) skeletal muscles

2) smooth muscles

3) cardiac muscles

SKELETAL MUSCLES

They are approximately three hundred in number. They are also known as striated muscle or voluntary muscles. These muscles are under our conscious control or in other words we can say that whenever we want a particular muscle to move it will move only then. These muscles are made up of striped or striated fibrils that are dark and light bands. Skeletal muscles are hurt when we get any injury during physical work.

SMOOTH MUSCLES

These are also called visceral or involuntary muscles. These muscles are not in direct control of our body. They are controlled by autonomic nervous system. These muscles are for the body organs found in the walls of stomach and intestine, veins and arteries. They do not work under the conscious effort. These are not made up of striped or striated fibrils as in the skeletal muscles. Smooth muscles blend with each other in such a way that one muscle cannot be easily distinguished from the other. We cannot easily recognize that where one stops and the other one begins. That is the reason why they are called smooth muscles.
 
CARDIAC MUSCLES

Muscles of heart are known as the cardiac muscles. They appear same as the skeletal muscles but they are involuntary in their work. These muscles help in the transmission of blood from the heart to the body.

The busiest muscle in our body is in the eyes that causes blinking. The largest muscle is gluteus maxiums or buttocks and the smallest is found deep within the ear and is known as stapedius.